为什么宋朝越裁官越多？｜罗振宇《文明之旅》之1046

这段文字来自一档名为“文明之旅”的历史讨论节目，主题是中国古代“冗官”问题，特别是宋朝时期的冗官现象。主持人带领观众回到公元1046年，审视这个在中国历史上反复出现的问题。 节目以当时一位官职相对较低的官员张方平为中心展开，他提出了对官员数量过多的担忧。张方平指出，御史台和中央政府的官员数量在短短十多年里几乎翻了一番，首都开封的僧侣数量也显著增加。这种担忧并非新鲜事；自宋朝建立以来，官员数量一直在稳步增长。宋太祖时期只有3000-5000名官员，到宋真宗时期已经膨胀到8000-9000名，而到了包拯时期，更是超过了17000名。 旁白强调，官僚机构臃肿的问题并非宋朝独有。他引用了唐朝晚期的例子，当时官员数量也急剧增加。类似地，在明朝，“吏”（地方政府雇员）的数量远远超过了官方限制。 节目认为，官僚机构臃肿不仅仅是一个历史怪癖，而是在各种政府乃至企业组织中反复出现的现象。主持人介绍了“帕金森定律”的概念，该定律认为官僚机构无论是否有必要都会扩张。他指出，该定律有两条规则：第一，一个组织将花费所有可用的时间和资源。第二，一个平庸的官僚会雇佣两个能力不如自己的下属，以巩固自己的地位。 节目还解释说，目标转移是官僚机构臃肿的一个主要因素。它展示了官僚机构如何失去对其预期目标的关注，转而专注于替代目标或维持自身的存在，从而导致人员过剩。此外，节目还解释说，中国古代的科举制度有其自身导致官员过多的特点。原因之一是加强中央集权。另一个原因是推广科举制度。还有一个原因是政府建立了“恩荫”制度，这意味着官员拥有更大的权力，可以将好处给予他们的亲属和朋友，并使他们成为官员。 旁白强调，理解历史现象需要避免简单化的道德判断。与其将问题归咎于历史人物的愚蠢或腐败，不如探索他们做出决定的原因。从皇帝的角度来看，节目指出，控制官员数量是一个政治决定。 旁白讲述了一个故事，唐朝开国皇帝李渊在攻占西河城后，大量授予那些声称有技能或做出贡献的人官职。他还将官职授予那些不想继续为他作战的士兵。后来，在向游牧部落购买马匹时，李渊拒绝支付要价。李渊看似矛盾的行为——在官职上慷慨，但在金钱上吝啬——是由他在动荡时期获得支持和稳定地位的直接目标所驱动的。李渊对实际的钱财非常谨慎，但对承诺未来的利益却毫不吝啬。 节目随后考虑了赵匡胤（宋太祖）建立统治的历史事件。他利用“杯酒释兵权”说服他的将军们放弃权力，并以高官厚禄作为回报。这解决了短期问题。从皇帝的角度来看，这似乎是一种划算的方式，但如果从长远的角度来看，就会导致官员过多和财政负担。 该集节目最终认为，官僚机构臃肿往往是在面对眼前危机时做出理性决策的结果，而成本则推迟到未来。虽然这可能导致长期问题，但重要的是要理解这些决策背后的背景和动机。正如黑格尔所言，“我们从历史中唯一能学到的就是我们什么也学不到。” 节目表明，理解官僚机构扩张的动态对人们来说是一个挑战，即使在现代世界也是如此。

This transcript is from a historical discussion show called "Civilization Journey," focusing on the problem of "Rong Guan" (bloated bureaucracy) in ancient China, specifically during the Song Dynasty. The host leads the audience on a journey back to 1046 AD to examine this recurring issue in Chinese history. The show centers on Zhang Fangping, a relatively low-ranking official at the time, who raised concerns about the excessive number of officials. Zhang pointed out that the number of officials in both the imperial secretariat and the central government had nearly doubled in just over a decade, and the number of monks in Kaifeng, the capital, had also significantly increased. This concern wasn't new; the number of officials had been steadily growing since the beginning of the Song Dynasty. While Emperor Taizu had only 3,000-5,000 officials, by Emperor Zhenzong's reign, it had already ballooned to 8,000-9,000, and by Bao Zheng's time, it was over 17,000. The narrator highlights that the issue of bureaucratic bloat wasn't unique to the Song Dynasty. He cites examples from the Tang Dynasty where the number of officials increased dramatically during its later years. Similarly, in the Ming Dynasty, the number of "li" (local government workers) far exceeded the official limits. The show argues that bureaucratic bloat isn't just a historical quirk but a recurring phenomenon in various government and even corporate organizations. The host introduces the concept of the "Parkinson's Law" which posits that bureaucratic organizations will expand regardless of need. He states that there are two rules for that. First, an organization will spend all available time and resources. Second, a mediocre bureaucrat will employ two less capable subordinates to safeguard their position. The show also explains that goal displacement is a major factor for bureaucratic bloat. It shows how a bureaucracy loses focus on its intended goals and instead concentrates on substitute objectives or on maintaining its existence, resulting in overstaffing. In addition, the show explains that the Chinese imperial system had its own characteristics causing the excessive officials. One reason is strengthening central power. Another reason is promoting the imperial examination. Another reason is that the government established the "En Yin" system, which means that the officials had more power and can give benefits to their relatives and friends and make them be the officials. The narrator emphasizes that understanding historical phenomena requires avoiding simplistic moral judgments. Rather than attributing the problem to the stupidity or corruption of historical figures, he suggests exploring the reasons behind their decisions. From the emperor's perspective, the show points out that controlling the number of officials is a political decision. The narrator tells a story that Emperor Li Yuan, the founder of the Tang Dynasty, after seizing the town of Xihe, massively awarded official titles to anyone who claimed to have skills or made contributions. He also gave official titles to soldiers who did not want to continue fighting for him. Later, when it came to purchasing horses from a nomadic tribe, Li Yuan refused to pay the asking price. Li Yuan's seemingly contradictory actions of being generous with official titles but stingy with money were driven by his immediate goal of gaining support and stabilizing his position in a turbulent time. Emperor Li Yuan was very careful with the actual money, but not stingy to promise future benefits. The show then considers the historical event of Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu of Song) establishing his reign. He used the “drink wine to relieve military power" to persuade his generals to relinquish their control, rewarding them with high positions and riches. This solved the short-term issues. From the emperor’s point of view, it seems that it is a cost-effective way, but if you consider this from a long-term perspective, there will be lots of officials and financial burden. The episode concludes by arguing that bureaucratic bloat is often a consequence of rational decisions made in the face of immediate crises, with the costs deferred to the future. While this can lead to long-term problems, it's important to understand the context and motivations behind these decisions. As Hegel famously said, "The only thing we learn from history is that we learn nothing from history." The show suggests that understanding the dynamics of bureaucratic expansion is a challenge for people, even in the modern world.