Vertigo - The Rise and Fall of Weimar Germany. Chapter 13: Lonely Elites – Cabinet Politics vs Populism

这一章深入探讨了魏玛共和国动荡的最后几个月，重点关注1932年6月至1933年1月这段时期，这是一个充斥着政治阴谋、暴力升级和纳粹党崛起的时期。它考察了弗朗茨·冯·帕彭、库尔特·冯·施莱谢尔、保罗·冯·兴登堡和阿道夫·希特勒等关键人物的角色，以及为纳粹党夺权铺平道路的更广泛的社会背景。 叙述从1932年6月帕彭被任命为总理开始，他是由兴登堡的顾问们（一个被称为“卡马利拉”的团体）选中的傀儡。帕彭的主要目标，与地主容克阶级和精英商人的利益一致，是确保纳粹党（NSDAP）的合作。为了实现这一目标，他解除了对冲锋队（SA，纳粹准军事部队）的禁令，从而在全国掀起了一场政治暴力浪潮。表面上，这个决定是为了获得纳粹党在国会中的支持，暴露了一种为了短期政治利益而牺牲原则的意愿。 解除对冲锋队的禁令导致街头暴力事件急剧增加，数百人在纳粹分子、共产主义者和其他人之间的冲突中丧生。本章重点介绍了1932年7月的“普鲁士政变”，帕彭政府罢免了由社民党领导的民选普鲁士地方政府，普鲁士是德国最大的州。帕彭以“阿尔托纳血腥星期天”为借口，解散了普鲁士政府，用帝国专员取而代之，实际上摧毁了社会民主的一个重要堡垒。这一行动表明，右翼保守派旨在消除任何对其议程的潜在抵抗。 尽管暴力事件升级，威权措施不断，但新的国会选举于1932年7月举行。纳粹党以37.3%的选票成为最强大的政党，而社民党遭受了挫折。这一结果突显了对反共和力量日益增长的支持，大多数选民支持主张右翼或左翼独裁统治的政党。这使得政府（一个没有强大民主授权的“绅士俱乐部”）处于岌岌可危的境地，难以在压倒性的反对声中进行统治。 尽管纳粹党在选举中取得成功，但兴登堡拒绝任命希特勒为总理，这造成了进一步的紧张局势。兴登堡虽然保守，但他犹豫是否将完全控制权交给一个决心实行独裁统治的政党。然而，希特勒拒绝接受联合政府中的下属地位，担心妥协会损害他的形象并削弱他的支持。本章还详细描述了当时德国面临的严重经济困难，数百万人失业，饥饿普遍。帕彭政府采取了紧缩措施，进一步加剧了这种情况。 随着帕彭政府努力维持控制，库尔特·冯·施莱谢尔成为一个关键人物，他说服兴登堡任命他取代帕彭为总理。施莱谢尔的策略是组建一个“Querfront”（跨党派联盟），由温和派力量组成，以边缘化希特勒。这包括与格奥尔格·施特拉塞尔（纳粹党中较为务实的一员）等人物接触。尽管施莱谢尔在将对立力量聚集在一起方面有记录，但他最终未能驯服纳粹党。他分裂纳粹党的努力徒劳无功，他建立跨党派联盟的尝试也因利益冲突而崩溃。 最终，帕彭出于重新掌权的渴望，与希特勒谈判，提出以副总理的职位换取希特勒担任总理。兴登堡最终屈服于压力，于1933年1月30日任命希特勒为总理，帕彭为副总理。这标志着魏玛共和国的最后一根稻草。 本章最后强调了“群众”在纳粹主义崛起中的关键作用。利珀（一个小州）的关键地区选举表明，对纳粹党的支持仍在继续，这破坏了任何对希特勒上台的剩余抵抗。虽然精英阶层错综复杂的政治运作发挥了重要作用，但作者认为，德国民众对希特勒的广泛支持以及对彻底变革的渴望是魏玛共和国灭亡的决定性因素。尽管经济形势在客观上有所改善，但很大一部分民众已经对这个制度失去了耐心，并接受了希特勒提出的“新德国”愿景，这种愿景是由情感而非理性驱动的。

This chapter delves into the tumultuous final months of the Weimar Republic, focusing on the period from June 1932 to January 1933, a time marked by political maneuvering, escalating violence, and the rise of the Nazi Party. It examines the roles of key figures like Franz von Papen, Kurt von Schleicher, Paul von Hindenburg, and Adolf Hitler, alongside the broader societal context that paved the way for the Nazi takeover. The narrative begins with Papen's appointment as Chancellor in June 1932, a figurehead chosen by Hindenburg's advisors, a group known as the Camarilla. Papen's primary goal, aligned with the interests of the landowning Junker class and elite businessmen, was to secure the cooperation of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). To achieve this, he lifted the ban on the SA (Sturmabteilung), the Nazi paramilitary wing, unleashing a wave of political violence across the country. This decision was ostensibly to gain NSDAP support in the Reichstag, revealing a willingness to compromise principles for short-term political gain. The lifting of the SA ban led to a dramatic increase in street violence, with hundreds killed in clashes between Nazis, Communists, and others. The chapter highlights the "Prussian coup" in July 1932, where Papen's government ousted the democratically elected SPD-led regional government of Prussia, the largest state in Germany. Using the "Altona Bloody Sunday" as a pretext, Papen dismissed the Prussian government, replacing it with a Reich commissioner, effectively dismantling a crucial bulwark of social democracy. This action demonstrated the right-wing conservatives' intent to eliminate any potential resistance to their agenda. Despite the escalating violence and authoritarian measures, new Reichstag elections were held in July 1932. The NSDAP emerged as the strongest party with 37.3% of the vote, while the SPD suffered a setback. This result underscored the growing support for anti-republican forces, with a majority of voters backing parties advocating for either right-wing or left-wing dictatorships. This left the government, a "gentleman's club" without a strong democratic mandate, in a precarious position, struggling to govern against the overwhelming opposition. Hindenburg's refusal to appoint Hitler as Chancellor, despite the NSDAP's electoral success, created further tensions. Hindenburg, while conservative, hesitated to hand over complete control to a party determined to rule dictatorially. However, Hitler refused to accept a subordinate position within a coalition government, fearing that compromises would damage his image and erode his support. The chapter also details the severe economic hardships facing Germany at the time, with millions unemployed and widespread hunger. Papen's government responded with austerity measures that further exacerbated the situation. As Papen's government struggled to maintain control, Kurt von Schleicher emerged as a key player, persuading Hindenburg to replace Papen as Chancellor. Schleicher's strategy involved forming a "Querfront," a cross-party alliance of moderate forces to marginalize Hitler. This involved reaching out to figures like Georg Strasser, a more pragmatic member of the NSDAP. Schleicher, despite a track record of bringing together opposing forces, ultimately failed to tame the Nazi Party. His efforts to split the NSDAP proved futile, and his attempt to create a cross-party coalition collapsed due to conflicting interests. Ultimately, Papen, driven by a desire to regain power, negotiated with Hitler, offering him the Chancellorship in exchange for the Vice-Chancellorship. Hindenburg, eventually succumbing to pressure, appointed Hitler as Chancellor on January 30, 1933, with Papen as Vice-Chancellor. This marked the final nail in the coffin for the Weimar Republic. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the crucial role of the "crowd" in the rise of Nazism. A crucial regional election in Lippe, a small state, demonstrated the continued support for the Nazi Party, undermining any remaining resistance to Hitler's ascension. While the intricate political maneuvering of the elite played a significant role, the author argues that the widespread support for Hitler and the desire for radical change among the German populace were decisive factors in the Weimar Republic's demise. Despite some objective improvements in the economic situation, a large portion of the population had lost patience with the system and embraced Hitler's vision of a "new Germany," driven by emotion rather than reason.